Acidity - A wine's acidity should be detectable as a sharpness in the mouth, particularly around the front sides of the tongue. It should be neither too obvious nor absent. Acidity in a wine can preserve the wine's freshness (especially in white wines) and keep the wine lively, and also maintains balance in reds. Its absence makes a wine dull and 'flabby' - a defect in any wine, but a disaster in sweet wines which to me become undrinkable without balancing acidity. Too much acidity can make a wine difficult to drink. There are many acids in a wine, but the principle ones are acetic, malic, tartaric, lactic, citric and carbonic acid. Wines from hot years tend to be lower in acidity, whereas wines from cool, rainy years tend to be high in acidity, but too much acidity, which masks the wines flavors and compresses its texture, is a flaw.
Aftertaste - The taste left on the palate after the wine has been swallowed. The persistence of the aftertaste - the length - may be used as an indicator of the quality of the wine. The longer the aftertaste lingers in the mouth (assuming it is a pleasant taste), the finer the quality of the wine.
Alcohol - There are many different compounds that may be described as 'alcohol'. In wine, the reference is to ethyl alcohol, the product of alcoholic fermentation of sugar by yeast. Its presence is measured in percent volume (or "proof").
Alcoholic Fermentation - The action of yeast upon sugar results in its conversion to ethyl alcohol, with carbon dioxide as a by-product. Fermentation will often start naturally with yeasts on the grapes, but cultured yeasts may be added. The process generates much heat, and temperature control during alcoholic fermentation can have a significant effect on the style of wine produced. The process will stop either when all the sugar has been consumed, when the increasing alcohol content of the fermenting juice kills the yeast, or when the external temperature drops too low. It may also be stopped by adding sulphur or by fortification with a spirit.
Balance - Wines said to have balance have a harmonious combination of tannin, acidity, texture and flavor. This is a very important and essential attribute and one of the most desired traits in a wine - whereby the concentration of fruit, level of tannins, and acidity are in total harmony. Balanced wines are symmetrical and tend to age gracefully.
Barrique - The barrique is a wooden barrel, the design of which originated in Bordeaux, France. It has a capacity of 225 liters. Today, it can be found in the cellars of winemakers worldwide, especially those involved in producing Bordeaux-style blends of quality. The longer a wine spends in barrique the more of the oak flavor it will take on. Strong flavors also result when the alcoholic fermentation takes place in barrique. There are many differnet barrel shapes and sizes.
Bâtonnage - French term for stirring of the lees which is employed to impart body and flavor to the wine.
Bead - A tasting term used to describe the size of the bubbles in a glass of sparkling wine or Champagne. Some people say that the smaller and more persistent the bead, the finer the wine. Serving temperature may affect it's appearance - a colder wine will be less effervescent.
Biodynamic Vitulture – Biodynamic viticulture is a system of managing a farm’s natural resources which includes certified organic growing practices striving to produce the highest quality fruit possible. Biodynamic viticulture is primarily influenced by the theories of Rudolf Steiner - based on his spiritual/practical philosophy, called anthroposophy, which includes understanding the ecological, the energetic, and the spiritual in nature.. Biodynamic farmers go so far as to plan for the growth of the leaves, roots, flowers or fruit, according to the positions of the moon and stars, the time of year, and even the time of day that grapes are picked. Farmers use internal methods of building and maintaining soil fertility through a system of recycling all internal waste with an emphasis on manure and compost and balanced crop rotation.
Blanc de Blancs - French term describing a white wine made entirely from white grapes. It is a necessary differentiation because red grapes can be used to make white wine, as only the skins impart color - the juice and pulp are clear. A Blanc de Blancs describes a wine made using 100% Chardonnay, the only other legally permitted variety.
Blanc de Noirs
This describes a white wine made entirely from red grapes. It is a term commonly used in Champagne, with reference to wines made from the red grapes, Pinot Meunier and Pinot Noir.
Body - A tasting term indicating the weight and fullness of a wine that can be sensed as it crosses the palate. A wine with plenty of flavour, alcohol, extract and tannin may be described as full-bodied.
Botrytis Cinerea - The cause of Noble Rot, Botrytis Cinerea is a fungus which, under suitable conditions, attacks grapes on the vines, leaving them shriveled and dehydrated. For many grapes this can be a disaster, but the process is also invaluable in the production of sweet wines in Bordeaux, Austria, Germany and Tokai. In unfavorable conditions the fungus is the cause of Grey Rot.
Brut - A term used to describe a dry wine (usually Champagne or other sparkling wine), although even dry wines are not generally devoid of sugar, and there may be up to 15 g/l of sugar added as dosage before final bottling. Terms used to describe Champagne with more sugar include sec (which still means dry) and demi-sec.
Cantina - An Italian winery or cellar.
Cap - The mass of skins, pips and other solid matter that rises to the surface of the wine during alcoholic fermentation. Pigeage helps to keep the solid matter mixed in with the wine, imparting color, flavor and tannin.
Carbonic Maceration - A method of vinification, which produces wines that are soft, with fruit flavors and color, but little tannin, and therefore more accessible. This system is used when fruit is to be emphasized in the final wine in contrast to structure and tannin. Whole clusters of grapes are put into a vat that is then filled with carbonic gas.
Chaptalisation - The process of adding sugar to the fermenting vat, which is converted to ethyl alcohol by the yeast. The intent is to increase the final alcohol content. A surprisingly widespread practice in many French wine regions, but particularly in Burgundy.
Classico - This is a generic term indicating to a limited area within the confines of a particular D.O.C. zone. It is also used to describe a particular method of in-bottle fermentation once referred to as "Méthode champenoise". As of 1994, only sparkling wines actually produced in Champagne can bear that distinction.
Cold Stabilisation - This process simply involves chilling wine prior to bottling. This causes tartaric acid to crystallise out, thereby avoiding the formation of tartrate crystals, specifically potassium hydrogen tartrate, when the wine is in the bottle.
Débourbage - French term for process of clarifying the white wine must by allowing it to settle before racking. This reduces the need for fining or filtration.
Dégorgement - The process of removing the plug of lees from finished sparkling wines. The neck of the bottle is dipped in freezing brine or glycol, which flash-freezes the plug of lees (and some of the wine) into a solid mass that comes out easily as one piece when the cap is removed. Also called "disgorging". A bidule inserted into the neck before second fermentation facilitates the extraction of the frozen plug.
Denominazione di Origine Controllata (DOC) - Often abbreviated to DOC and the equivalent of the French appellation contrôlée. According to Italian legislation, the label on a controlled wine must carry THIS certification of origin which indicates the viticultural area to which it belongs and the method of production.
Denominazione di Origine Controllata e Garantita (DOCG) - Often abbreviated to DOCG, Only a handful of wines have been promoted to this level. In this case, in addition to meeting D.O.C. requirements, the wine is subjected to more stringent cultivation and processing controls. The certification constitutes the maximum guarantee of quality and is awarded only after a taste test by a specially appointed commission. Italian D.O.C.G. wines are: Albana di Romagna, Asti and Moscato d'Asti, Barbaresco, Barolo, Brachetto d'Acqui, Brunello di Montalcino, Carmignano, Cerasuolo, Chianti, Chianti Classico, Fiano di Avalino, Franciacorta, Gattinara, Ghemme, Greco di Tufo, Montefalco, Roero Arneis, Sagrantino, Taurasi, Torgiano, Vernaccia di San Gimignano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano.
Destemming - The process of removing the stems/stalks from the grape bunches before fermentation. Unripe stems will result in a green, unripe taste in the wine.
Dolce - Italian for Sweet.
Dry - A tasting term. Essentially this is the opposite of sweet, although a wine that tastes dry still contains sugar, perhaps just a few grams per liter. The term 'dry' can also be used to describe the tannins or mouth-feel, when it refers to the dry, puckering sensation the wine imparts.
Extract - This refers to the solid compounds in wine, such as tannins. Increasing the level of extract results in more color and body. It may be increased by leaving the wine in contact with the skins for longer during cuvaison (period of time when grape juice is kept in contact with the skins and seeds during fermentation), although too long will result in an unbalanced wine that seems 'over-extracted'.
Filtration - A finishing process, performed before bottling. The wine is filtered in order to remove solid impurities, such as dead yeast cells. Although it may help to clarify the wine, it can also be problematic as it can of strip wine of flavor and character. It differs from fining which removes soluble materials.
Glycerol - Also known as glycerine. A sweet, syrupy compound which is an essential part of all fats and oils. It is produced in small quantities by alcoholic fermentation, especially when there is botrytis, and increases the sweetness of the finished wine.
Hectare - The most commonly used measurement of area in viticulture, the hectare is 10 000 square meters, approximately 2.5 acres. Yields may be expressed in hectolitres per hectare.
Indigenous Fermentation - Also known as “wild yeast fermentation”, this is the natural fermentation process that occurs from the yeasts (natural, microscopic, unicellular organisms) found on the skins of grapes in the vineyard. Indigenous fermentation begins as soon as the crushing process begins. The utilization of indigenous yeasts helps insure that the wine will exhibit the natural flavors and minerality from the soil (“terroir”).
Indicazioni Geografiche Tipiche (I.G.T.) - Denotes a classification between V.D.T. (Vino Da Tavola) and D.O.C.
Lactic Acid - One of the many acids that contribute to the overall acidity of a wine. This acid, which is also found in milk, makes a much softer impression on the palate than many others, such as malic acid. Consequenctly, many winemakers encourage the conversion of the harsher malic acid to lactic acid through malolactic fermentation.
Lees - A heavy sediment consisting of dead yeast cells and other solid matter such as grape pulp, pips and so on. Keeping the wine on the lees, especially if they are stirred from time to time, may be beneficial to the wine, imparting extra flavor and body. Eventually, however, they must be removed. This may be achieved by racking the wine off the lees. Residual solid matter may be removed by filtration.
Legs - A tasting term referring to the tear-like tracks that a wine makes down the side of a glass after it has been swirled. It may be related to alcohol or glycerol content - it's a matter of contention. Not really essential for assessing the quality of a wine, though some tasters will still comment on the legs.
Length - A tasting term, describing how long the flavor of the wine persists on the palate after it has been swallowed. A lengthy persistence of flavor may be taken as a sign of quality.
Malic Acid - One of the main contributors to the acidity of a wine. Malic acid has a sharp, green taste - rather like the tangy freshness of a green apple. Whereas this may be desirable in some white wines, in others, and in most reds, it is not. Hence winemakers encourage its conversion to lactic acid with the malolactic fermentation. Other important acids include citric, tartaric and acetic.
Malolactic Fermentation - This is completely separate from the alcoholic fermentation, which results from the action of yeast upon sugar, producing alcohol. Malolactic fermentation, which is a bacterial process, results in conversion of the sharp tasting malic acid to the softer lactic acid. Whether a winemaker permits or blocks the malolactic (or 'malo') depends on the style of wine aimed for. Most red wines, and some whites depending on the style, undergo malolactic fermentation.
Marc - Residue that remains in the wine after the pressing of the grapes. It is composed of skins, pulp, and pips. Marc can be put back in the vineyard as fertilizer.
Méthode Champenoise - The traditional (French) method for making Champagne, in which the second fermentation occurs within the bottle. A legally protected term - only sparking wine from Champagne may wear this on the label - although the method is used the world over.
Méthode Traditionelle - Winemakers outside Champagne using the Methode Champenoise may utilize this term to describe the process on the label. They are legally prevented from using the term Methode Champenoise.
Microclimate - This term describes the climate immediately around the vine. It is influenced by canopy management.
Must - The must is the mixture of fermenting grape juice, pips, skins, stalks and so on. It is distinct from marc, which is all of these once the grape juice has been removed. An assessment of must weight is vital in guiding the winemaker.
New World - Broadly speaking, the world of wine is divided into Old World and New. The New World includes North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. As knowledge is lacking about what grapes will perform best in a given plot of land winemakers must employ methods to make sure the grapes will perform satisfactorily. These techniques include advanced irrigation systems, heavy reliance on oak aging and adding various natural compounds to the wine. There has obviously been a great increase in the quality and quantity of wine produced here within the last few decades, although some have been producing wine for centuries.
Noble Rot - A specific form of Botrytis (a fungal infection caused by Botrytis Cinerea) which does not harm the grapes and produces a complex sweet wine commonly called "desert wine" or "Sauternes style". Under the right conditions - damp, misty mornings followed by warm, sunny afternoons - the result is Noble Rot, which leaves grapes shriveled, dehydrated, and thus rich in sugar and also unique Botrytis-derived flavors.
Nose - A tasting term describing how a wine smells.
Oak - The oak tree is used to make barrels for wine production. Although, historically, other woods, such as apple, cherry, chestnut or redwood have been (and sometimes, still are used), oak is the primary choice for wine barrels. There are a number of reasons oak is used - it is strong and yet flexible enough to be bent without breaking, it has a tight grain resulting in a slow extraction of wood flavors and minimal loss of wine to evaporation, it has high tannins which add to the wine’s flavor spectrum and consume oxygen in the wine preventing spoilage. Additionally, oak tannins have a neutral wood character and oak does not impart any color.
Old World - Old world wines come from the "classic wine making regions" in Europe - France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Austria and so on - with a long history of viticulture. New world wines come from everywhere else. The Old World can generally date their origins of wine production back to the Roman Empire and beyond. Throughout this more than 2000 year period growers were able to figure out which grapes grew best and which areas of land consistently produced the finest quality. When the Roman Empire collapsed many of the vineyards were abandoned and so by natural selection the grapes which managed to survive became the grapes that are still grown today.
Organic Viticulture - A method of wine grape growing which is based on the principle of not using man-made fertilizers, pesticides and other chemicals. This term is distinct from ‘biodynamic viticulture’ which also takes into account the effect of the moon and planets on the growth and health of the vines.
Oxidation - The process of aging that occurs when oxygen comes in contact with wine. Exposure of the wine to oxygen in the winery is carefully controlled, but is not necessarily completely avoided. Exposure to oxygen during racking and aging in barrel can be of benefit to the wine. Once a bottle of wine has been opened for some time, or if oxygen leaks past a bad cork, the “oxidized” wine will taste off. Usually this occurs if a wine has been excessively exposed to air during either its making or aging - the wine loses freshness and takes on a stale, old smell and taste.
Passito - Italian term describing the method of drying the grapes prior to fermentation. The dehydration results in an increased sugar concentration in the grape. The practice is traditional in Veneto, Italy, particularly in the production of Amarone della Valpolicella and Recioto della Valpolicella, but also for Recioto di Soave and other sweet wines. Traditionally the grapes are dried on straw mats, but they may also be dried in baskets in warm lofts, or hung directly from the rafters.
Pigeage - This is one method of submerging or punching down the cap of grape skins and grape solids that forms during the beginning of the wine's fermentation process (and is kept in contact with the fermenting wine). The same may be achieved by pumping the fermenting wine over the cap, or be submerging it using boards laid across the top of the vat. This is done several times a day, occasionally more frequently, to extract color, flavor, and tannin.
Pips - Grape seeds.
Racking - Term for the traditional practice of moving wine from one container, such as a barrel, to another. Carefully done, the lees may be left behind in the first barrel, resulting in a partial clarification of the wine. It is essentially decanting on a grand scale, by moving a wine from barrel to barrel. It requires more labor, but racking is less disturbing to the wine than filtration.
Recioto - This Italian term describes wines made from grapes which have been dried for several months prior to fermentation. The dehydration results in a concentration of the grape sugars, and the resulting wines are sweet. If fermented to dryness the wines are known as Amarone. The drying process may be referred to as passito.
Residual - Refers to any substance that remains after the fermentation.
Residual Sugar - The amount of sugar left in the wine after alcoholic fermentation. Residual sugar may be the result of high must weight, or the termination of fermentation before all the sugar has been converted into alcohol with the addition of sulfur or spirit. The vast majority of wines have less than 2 g/l. Sweet wines of course have more, some reaching surprising levels - up to 480 g/l has been recorded.
Riserva – Italian, indicates a longer ageing period which can mean up to 3 years in the barrel before bottling, depending on the D.O.C.
Ripasso - A concept in Italy instituted to increase the amount of flavor as well as interest in basic Valpolicella. The Valpolicella wine is passed over the unpressed but drained must of an Amarone. The bittersweet intensity of the Amarone is imparted, in a small way, to the basic Valpolicella, possibly with the help of a minor secondary refermentation.
Structure - A tasting term. When a wine is described as having structure, the taster is referring to the tannin and acidity levels. These elements give the wine a presence in the mouth; without them wine would tend towards a flabby, fruit flavored drink.
Sugar - A large collection of organic compounds present in grapes as a result of photosynthesis. This is mostly sucrose. Yeast converts sugar to alcohol during fermentation.
Sugar Ripeness – The condition in which the grapes reach a certain sugar concentration, sufficient for alcoholic fermentation and meeting the demands of the winemaker, this is sugar ripeness. Sugar ripeness is essential to alcoholic fermentation and is watched closely. This is different from physiological ripeness which refers to the ripening of substances other than sugar in the grapes (i.e., tannins).
Sulfites - Amino acids that result from the breakdown of proteins during fermentation. They may be added to through the addition of sulfur during the winemaking process. Winemakers use sulfites to keep wine must from spoiling because they arrest metabolic processes of yeasts and bacteria. However, even wines that have not had sulfites added by the wine maker may contain small amounts produced naturally during fermentation. Current wine making methods utilize very small amounts of sulfur. US regulations dictate that the "Contains Sulfites" label be placed on the wine if it contains levels of sulfites above 10 parts per million. Anything below that level does not need to have the label, but it still may contain sulfites.
Sulfur - This is an important element in winemaking, with a wide variety of uses, often as part of the compound sulfur dioxide. It may be used as a disinfectant in between vintages, and may be added to must and finished wines as an antibacterial agent to prevent spoilage. It may also be used in winemaking as a method of terminating fermentation. Excessive use may result in an unpleasant mothball or burnt match aroma from the wine.
Sur Lie - French term describing a winemaking method whereby wine has been allowed to lie on its lees for a certain period before being racked off. The intention is to add extra richness and flavor to the wine.
Tannin - Found in grape skins, pips and stalks. Tannins are harsh, bitter compounds which if present in large amounts make a wine difficult to drink as they leave a dry, puckered sensation in the mouth – similar to drinking tea, which is also very tannic. The amount of tannin can be increased by enhancing extraction, achieved by prolonging the cuvaison (the time during which the must is left to sit during or before fermentation (maceration) allowing the solids such as skins, seeds and stalks to release tannins as well as flavor and color compounds). Tannins may also enter the wine from oak barrels. Tannic wines are generally suited well for ageing.
Tartaric Acid - One of a number of naturally occurring grape acids which contribute to the acidity of a wine. Other important acids include acetic, malic, lactic, citric and carbonic acid.
Tartrate Crystals - During fermentation tartaric acid may be converted into potassium hydrogen tartrate, formed through its reaction with potassium. This compound may crystallise, when conditions are cold, to form small crystals in the wine. These are small, clear or white crystals. Some winemakers wish to prevent their formation through cold stabilization. The crystals themselves are harmless and natural so the decision is truly an aesthetic one.
Terroir - French term which has no simple translation into English, for the many physical factors that influence the ultimate character of a wine. It refers to all the influences on the growing and ripening of the grapes, including the interplay of farming techniques, the soils (depth and type), bedrock, exposure to sun and wind, water table, climate, farming methods and so on. Rootstock (really an intrinsic part of the vine, even if it is grafted) can be included as an influence as well. It is believed and much debated that a clone of one grape variety planted in different terroirs will result in a different wines.
Texture - The texture of a wine describes how the wine feels in the mouth – i.e., silky, velvety, rounded, smooth. It is a more specific term than body, which describes the general impact of the wine.
Vintage - The year during which grapes are grown, harvested and vinified. By extension, a non-vintage or multi-vintage wine is a wine made from grapes grown during several different years.
Vitis Labrusca - Native North American grape species, of which Concord is best known. Characterized by a distinctive grapey aroma. It was once an important source of rootstock for the Phylloxera-sensitive Vitis Vinifera.
Vitis Vinifera - The primary species of wine grapes-derived from the European-Middle Eastern vine from which the most of the world's fine wines are made, including Cabernet Sauvignon, Chardonnay, Riesling, and Pinot Noir, among many others. See additional reference glossary on North American grape varieties.
Volatile Acidity - Wine has acidity, which is derived from the presence of a number of different acids including acetic, malic, tartaric, lactic, citric, carbonic and so on. Excessive levels of acetic acid produce an aroma resembling acetone (nail polish remover) or vinegar. Most commonly, it results from the action of one of several "acetic bacteria" during production, but it can also occur in the bottle. In small quantities its presence can help liven a wine and add to its complexity, but in excess it is unpleasant and a fault.
Whole Berry Fermentation - It is a fermentation method that may be considered a variation of the carbonic maceration technique but differs in that it is used with fuller bodied tannic red wines. Whole berry fermentation consists of leaving some of the grape berries intact during the crushing process. Some winemakers like to hold some of these whole berries back and add them at various points, resulting in extending the fermentation process. The chemical process involved with whole berry fermentation lends these sturdy red wines a lively, berry character with lower tannins and less alcohol. The biggest benefit from whole berry fermentation is no crushed or cracked seeds to add more astringent tannins into the wine. It produces softer wines with more varietal character.
Yeast - A micro-organism whose presence is necessary to have bread, beer or wine. The yeasts convert the sugar to alcohol in a process known as alcoholic fermentation. Present naturally in the vineyard, harvested grapes will begin to ferment naturally, especially if they are crushed to break the skins and expose the sugar-rich juice inside to the yeasts which reside on the grape skins. Some winemakers choose to add cultured yeasts rather than rely on the action of wild yeasts. This can give greater control over the fermentation, but some argue it may intrinsically alter the style or quality of the wine, as a single strain might not produce the same flavors as the multiple strains present in the vineyard.
Yield - The yield is the amount of fruit harvested and wine produced in a vineyard or estate, and is usually expressed in hectoliters per hectare. Yields vary according with the variety grown, terroir, vineyard management practices and winemaker’s preferences. Generally, low yields tend to result in better quality wine.
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