IN THE NEWS   The four most important elements of a great wine: Grape, Climate, Soil, and Winemaker.

Grape

There are thousands of grape varieties known to mankind. Of those, roughly sixty, known as the noble grapes, are best suited to produce great food wines. For centuries, European wine producers understood that the quality of the wine begins in the vineyard, planting the noble grape in the soil and climate in which it was best suited to grow.  Over time, European wines began to be labeled geographically, depending on the grape variety and the area in which it was cultivated.  In France, the Cabernet vine is produced in the Bordeaux area, and the Pinot Noir and Chardonnay in the Burgundy area.  In Italy, the Nebbiolo, Barbera, and Dolcetto grapes are produced in Piemonte and the Sangiovese in Tuscany.  In addition, the great wines of Europe come from small acreages.  The first-growth vineyards of Bordeaux produce no more than twenty thousand cases annually from their estates.  The production of La Romanée-Conti is so small that only one thousand to fifteen hundred cases per year are bottled depending on the vintage. In the United States, this concept of geographic labeling and single vineyard identification is in its embryonic stages.

The noble grape or its Latin name, vitis vinifera, is responsible for all the world’s great wines.  It is generally believed that vitis vinifera originated in Transcaucasia, but has proliferated most in the Mediterranean basin, where it was first domesticated by early civilization.  From there, vitis vinifera has been transplanted to California, Australia, North and South Africa, and South America.  Technically speaking, the noble grapes of the world only grow in the Mediterranean belt.  In the Northern Hemisphere, the belt is between isotherm 68º Fahrenheit and isotherm 50º Fahrenheit.  In the Southern Hemisphere the belt is between isotherm 50º Fahrenheit and isotherm 68º Fahrenheit

The sugar content of the grape at harvest time is determined by the climate.  The amount of sugar determines the alcoholic content.  As a general rule, the cooler the climate the thicker the skins of the grape, which, in turn, intensifies the flavor of the wine.  The noble grape does best in soils that have excellent drainage.  Rocky, hillside vineyards, then, are preferred to the valley floor.  Furthermore, higher elevations, such as mountain areas, will yield a cooler climate than on the valley floor.

The principle wine producing areas of France, Bordeaux and Burgundy, usually get one year out of each ten years where the grapes mature at harvest, therefore they have to add sugar at fermentation.  This process is known as chaptalisation, and it is performed to build up the alcoholic content, which is usually below thirteen percent.  Both in Italy and California it is illegal to use sugar, which means that the climate is such that the grapes mature at harvest.

The flavor of the wine (body) is derived from the skins of the noble grapes, each noble grape having is own innate thickness. Climate also contributes to the thickness of the skin - within the 120 days of the growing season, the cooler the climate and thus the longer the hang time of the grape on the vine, the thicker the skins. A good illustration of this is seen in the comparison between Pinot Noirs from Burgundy with those of California. Generally speaking, because the Burgundian climate is cooler (than in California), Pinot Noir grapes there will have longer hang times in the vineyard than those in California and thus thicker skins at harvest. During fermentation the wine extracts its flavor through its contact with the skins - the longer the liquid is in contact with the skins, the greater the intensity of the flavor the wine will extract. Likewise, the thicker the skins, the greater the complexity of flavor and minerality that will be exhibited in the wine.

Complexity is the natural diversity of flavors wine extracts from the noble grape. In white wine, complexity comes from the contact of the sediment (lees) with the wine after the fermentation process has been completed (Sur-lees). Contact can vary from two to twelve months. In red wine, complexity comes from contact with the skins after fermentation is completed - about two to four weeks after. Intensity of flavor may also come from batonage –stirring the lees in the wine every five days.

Climate

Micro Climates

One of the most successful methods of clarifying the relationships among the different areas, both for grape-growing and wine making has been the “heat summation” method of classifying vineyard regions.  (This is also known as micro-climate.)  The grape does not grow or mature its fruit when the temperature is below 50° Fahrenheit during the growing season.  If the average daily temperature is 70° Fahrenheit one day, this contributes 20 “heat summations units”  (70°-50°=20°), air temperatures for each 24-hour period. (It should be noted that in an area like Napa that has a high of 80° and a low of 60°, will have a daily average of 70°.  This will also occur in an area in Idaho where the high be 100° and the low 40°.  The average temperature will be the same as that in Napa, however, the two areas will not produce the same type of wines.)  Based on these units, the coldest regions where grapes are grown commercially have annual heat summations of about 1,700° days (using the Fahrenheit scale), and the hottest regions reach about 5,200° days.  The grape growing areas for Europe and California have been conveniently classified into five “regions” of heat summation.

Commercial viticulture is limited to certain areas of the world with 1,700 or more heat summation units during the summer season, without excessive rain or humidity during the summer and having continuous winter dormant periods with no excessive or prolonged cold temperatures or unseasonable warm spells.  Vineyard sites and cultural practices are selected in order to produce the best grapes of chosen variety for the type of wine to be made.  The environment of the vine has important effects upon its metabolism and influences the composition of the fruit and in turn, the quality of the wine.  Consistently successful commercial growing of high-quality wine grapes depends upon a correct matching to wine type, viticultural operations, climate and, at times, a little good fortune.

Alcohol

Alcoholic content in wine is controlled by the climate and is dependant on the sun (heat) of any given growing period.  The growing season of the noble grape lasts from 90 to 120 days, from April though October or November (in the northern hemisphere). During this period, the number of heat days controls the hang time of the grape from flowering to harvest. The cooler the days are during the growing season the thicker the skins; the thicker the skins, the bigger the intensity of flavor. The heat days during the growing season also determine the amount of sugar content of the grape at harvest. In turn, sugar establishes the amount of alcohol in a wine; for sugar is converted to alcohol in fermentation. Thus the greater the sugar level in a grape, the greater the alcoholic content in a wine. Generally speaking, wines that go well with food are 14-½% in alcohol and under. Wines that are over higher in alcoholic content tend to over power the taste of the food and are better drunk on their own.

Acidity

Acidity is also determined by the climate. Natural acid balance comes from the acid present in the grapes at harvest. Grapes grown in cooler climates struggle more, and thus produce a more complex wine that is higher in acidity. It is acidity that gives wine its longevity and cleanses the palate, disappearing with the intake of food. A good case in point is the Chardonnay grape. There must be enough natural acid left in the wine after the malolactic fermentation has taken place. Also knows as “secondary fermentation”, malolactic fermentation is caused by the conversion of malic acid into lactic acid & carbon dioxide.  While in the barrel, the result is a reduction in acid strength. If it occurs in the bottle, the wine becomes gassy, and may be the result of premature bottling.  Malolactic fermentation produces dieacetyl (or biacetyl), which adds complexity to a wine.  Most red wines and many whites (particularly White Burgundies and California Chardonnays) go through this process, as it helps to maintain their crisp, dynamic character. Chardonnays produced in warmer climates will not manufacture the necessary acidity for malolactic fermentation, which results in a poorer quality wine.

Soil

Contrary to general belief, the soil, although it is important, is distinctly secondary to the factors of climate and grape variety.  This relation is evident in the fact that different soil series are found in many of the world’s most famous vineyards.  More than any other variable, climate determines the special quality of a given wine and whether its consumption will be a highly prized experience or simply a mundane affair.

Grapevines are adaptable to the most well drained soils, even relatively infertile ones.  They have extensive root systems and can withstand drought more than many other crops.  If irrigation is possible, grapes are not limited by lack of rainfall.  In fact, since the grapevines dislike cold, waterlogged soil, and are susceptible to pathogens such as mildew in wet or too humid conditions, the absence of summer rains is often a favorable characteristic for a wine growing area.  If summer rains do occur, as in many of the European areas, their timing, the amount of rain, and the time before the excess water drains away and drying conditions return, is critical.  Since moisture is moisture to the root, the opinion that irrigation is detrimental to wine quality compared to rainfall is erroneous.  The purity of irrigation water and the timing of its application however, can be very important.  Rains early during the blooming period may cause a poor set of berries resulting in a late crop.  Additionally, rains late in the ripening period, particularly if followed by several humid days, may delay ripening and produce a lower quality crop (or at times even a complete loss) by encouraging berry cracking, bunch rot, and so on.  Fog and high humidity without rain may have similar effects, encouraging mildew on the leaves and causing heavy berry damage.  Localities with frequent hailstorms are undesirable for growing grapes.

The effects of wind can be severe on grapes.  As a result, areas of strong, poorly timed windstorms are unsuitable for growing grapes.  Tender shoots may break off and the crop will be reduced.  Leaves may also be ripped from the vine, decreasing its ability to produce sugar and mature the fruit.  If strong winds occur later in the season, the fruit may be damaged by whipping and thus exposed to decay and sun damage.

Sunburn and heat damage have various effects depending on the timing.  At temperatures of about 105° Fahrenheit or more, the grape berries are likely to be damaged, particularly those exposed to the direct sun.  Conversely, below freezing temperatures after the shoots have begun to develop, or before the vine has turned dormant, will seriously damage or kill the vine and effect the quality and amount of the crop in the spring.  Prolonged unseasonable warm spells during the dormant period may also cause premature sprouting, followed by frost damage.

All of these factors mentioned influence the success of grape growing and the quality of wine in a given area.  However, not only the climate of a viticultural area is important, but also the “micro-climate” of each vineyard.  By establishing vineyards on gentle slopes with maximum exposure to the sun, or in valleys protected from the wind, the vineyardist can minimize possible climatic problems.  Endless years spent observing the success and failure in the older viticultural countries, and more recently from scientific study especially in the new viticultural areas, the locally successful viticulture and grapevine is developed.  The types of wine produced, the varieties of grapes that should be grown, the proper management of vineyards and wineries, are characteristic of a given area.

Additionally, hillside vineyards and gravelly soil are usually preferred because of the excellent drainage they afford. The closer the vineyards are planted (to each other) the more the plant/grape will struggle for water. When the vine struggles to get water, available tannins in the grape at fermentation will be intensified. While soil is important, without good grapes grown in the ideal climate good wine cannot be produced.  No matter the country of production, the right geographic area has to be determined that offers the best opportunity to grow noble grapes that will in turn produce wines with the most desirable alcoholic content, acid balance and intensity of flavor.

Man’s Influence – Fallible Man/Winemaker

Ownership and Indigenous Yeasts

Generally speaking, producers of fine wines should own their vineyards - allowing for control over pruning, irrigation, leaf management, space, and harvest. Additionally, the majority of the fermentation process must be generated from the natural yeast that exists in the vineyard – indigenous fermentation. Also known as “wild yeast fermentation”, this is the natural fermentation process that occurs from the yeasts (natural, microscopic, unicellular organisms found on the skins of grapes).  Indigenous fermentation begins as soon as the crushing process begins.  With many of the larger producers, the grapes are picked and put into large gondolas to be transported to the crushing area.  The grapes at the bottom get crushed from the weight and begin to prematurely ferment.  In order to stop the process, sulfur must be added to the grapes to kill the wild yeast.  Man-made yeast is then added to the grapes to re-start fermentation at crush time.  While this process allows for rapid and controlled fermentation, it is typically the reason for headaches or allergic reactions (due to the added sulfur) to wine.  This method is uncharacteristic in the wines of the small producers – Since fermentation takes place in smaller, 40-50 lb. lugs, the winemaker has more control over the fermentation process, and in turn, the overall character of the wine. The utilization of indigenous yeasts helps insure that the wine will exhibit the natural flavors and minerality from the soil (“terroir”).

Fallible Man

Fallible Man is the last, but certainly not the least, factor involved in the production of fine wines, for he must make a number of important decisions that will affect the taste and style of a wine:

Grower:
Noble Grape planted in proper climate and soil: As mentioned above, certain grapes grow better than others in a given climate.  Generally speaking, however, the cooler the climate, the more intense flavor a wine will have.  A Chardonnay produced in the Santa Cruz Mountains, for example, will be lighter in body and flavor, than one produced in the Russian River Valley.

Farming Decisions: The grower needs to decide on what type of irrigation, pruning, leaf management, spacing of the vines, type of pesticides, type of trellising, umbrella management, etc.

Time to harvest the grape:  The condition of the grape at the time they are picked is of paramount importance to the production of fine wines.  Underripe grapes will not have the necessary sugar for quality winemaking, and will produce a grassy, weedy tasting wine.  Conversely, grapes that are overripe will have too much sugar, as well as low acidity, giving the wine the flavor of stewed fruit.  As one might expect, climate has everything to do with when the grape becomes ripe. Grape growers and winemakers can choose at what ripeness level to pick the grape, which will affect the style of the wine.

Picking grapes by Machine or by hand:  Picking grapes by the machine method, more common with larger producers, is advantageous in that it is fast and efficient (many tons can be brought in a short period of time, but often it can lead to the production of poorer quality wines.  It is hard on the vines, can bruise the grapes, and often includes material other than grapes, such as insects, stapes and bird nests.  Additionally, it does not allow for the selection of the healthy grapes.  On the contrary, handpicking grapes rarely bruises the grape, and allows for bunch selection.

Winemaker:
Size of production by variety (For limited production wines, this should not exceed 20,000 cases. The production size of most of the wines in this portfolio is under 1000 cases).

Type of equipment for production:  Type of crusher, type of press, size of stainless steel tanks.

Cooperage:  Storage filled with wine in air-conditioned warehouse vs. underground cave.

Barrel aging: Important decisions to be made are size of barrel, type of oak (new vs. old, French vs. American), and how long to age the wine in the barrel.

Open vs. Closed fermentation:  During open fermentation, the grapes are picked and then stored in fiberglass or stainless steel tanks, which are open to the air.  Open fermentation allows for dissipation of heat generated during fermentation, provides more contact with oxygen, and is more practical for smaller producers.  Closed fermentation, or fermenting in closed tanks make warming and cooling of the must easier and can hold large volumes of grapes, but, make cap management difficult and often allow fermentation to get too hot.

Cold Stabilization: Cold stabilization is a way of removing tartrates (tartaric acid), by storing wine at a very low temperature for up to three weeks.  The flavorless tartrates that are taken out for aesthetic purposes only sink to the bottom at cold enough temperatures, leaving the wine clear.

Aging

The bacteria are what give wine its life and as a living entity wine can be viewed as any living organism. When wine is born it is just like a baby. It then goes through its maturation process until it finds its stride, eventually reaching its peak before going down hill. The aging of wine is the slow process of the oxidation of the wine. Oak barrel aging is a common practice in producing quality wine and regardless of size should be used only for aging and not for flavoring. Size of barrel determines how fast the wine will age.  Fifty-five gallon oak barrels will age wine faster than a five thousand gallon cask. A new barrel will give more oak flavor than an older one The second time an oak barrel is used less of the oak flavor will be imparted and by the fifth use there is very little oak flavoring.  Traditionally, the French and Italian winemaker has used older oak barrels to age red wine, which in turn, adds to the complexity and delicacy of the wine; the practice of using oak to flavor the wine (especially in Chardonnay) is fairly new and is predominant in the larger producers of California and Australia. Typically, wines aged with new oak tend to be lower in acidity and higher in alcohol and tannins – and can often end up out of balance.

Complexity

Both red and white wines should exhibit more than one flavor and provide the palate with more than one opportunity to find comparable tastes in food. Fallible man in the winemaking process achieves this. In Chardonnay, after the wine is completely fermented, the wine is left in contact with the sediment (lees) for six to eight months, and is stirred every fifteen days. In red wine, after the wine is completely fermented the fermenting tank is sealed for four to six weeks leaving the wine in contact with the skins. The wine is tasted periodically and once is balanced, goes to press.